. The Canadian field-naturalist. Natural history; Sciences naturelles. 242 The Canadian Field-Naturalist Vol. 119. Figure 3. Open Red Pine stand northwest of Kingston (approximately ° N, ° W) with heath vegetation dominated by blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium). open heathland very slowly or not at all, whereas the European Scots Pine is an aggressive invader that forms dense stands. These not only reduce the biodiversity of native vascular plant species, but they also eliminate the native open heathland ecosystem. Management of Scots Pine will be necessary to protect representa
. The Canadian field-naturalist. Natural history; Sciences naturelles. 242 The Canadian Field-Naturalist Vol. 119. Figure 3. Open Red Pine stand northwest of Kingston (approximately ° N, ° W) with heath vegetation dominated by blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium). open heathland very slowly or not at all, whereas the European Scots Pine is an aggressive invader that forms dense stands. These not only reduce the biodiversity of native vascular plant species, but they also eliminate the native open heathland ecosystem. Management of Scots Pine will be necessary to protect representative sites. The threat of Scots Pine to natural ecosystems is apparently best documented in New Zealand where "wilding" (escaped from cultivation) conifers have had a major impact on the natural landscape. Of these conifers, Scots Pine is rated among the species having the greatest impact on the natural ecosystem and sub- stantial effort has been directed to control and man- agement (, Langer 1992). In the United States, various agencies have recom- mended against the planting of Scots Pine due to its invasive tendency, but, as is the case for Canada, quantification of impact is very limited. The lack of detail is in direct contrast to the abundance of anec- dotes. For example it has been noted that: "to appre- ciate the problem of invading alien trees and shrubs in Canada, one need only consider the planting of Scots Pine (Pinus sylvesths) in native open habitats that have become thoroughly choked with this aggressive weed tree" (Catling 1997). Scots Pine was featured as one of 16 invasive aliens of wetland habitats in Canada and one of 40 invasives of upland habitats in Canada (White et al. 1993). It has also been mentioned in the context of serious invasives in various provinces (, Kaiser 1983; Riley 1989; Urban Forest Associates Inc. 2002). and environmental organizations have advised against its use as an ornamental. The demonstrated impact on
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